The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to remember information that one is certain one knows. Retrieval cues are a major strategy for recalling information successfully. The levels-of-processing approach to memory suggests that the way in which information is initially perceived and analyzed, determines the success with which it is recalled. The deeper the initial processing, the ...
Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. Sensory memory, corresponding to each of the sensory systems, is the first place where information is saved. Sensory memories are very brief, but they are precise, storing a nearly exact replica of a stimulus. Roughly seven (plus or minus two) chunks of information ...
Cognitive approaches to learning consider learning in terms of thought processes, or cognition. Phenomena such as latent learning–in which a new behavior is learned but not performed until some incentive is provided for its performance–and the apparent development of cognitive maps support cognitive approaches. Learning also occurs from observing the behavior of others. The major ...
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which a voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened. According to B.F. Skinner, the major mechanism underlying learning is reinforcement, the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Primary reinforcers are rewards that are naturally effective without prior experience because they satisfy ...
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. One major form of learning is classical conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus–one that normally brings about no relevant response–is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (called an unconditioned stimulus) that brings about a natural, untrained response. Conditioning occurs when the neutral stimulus is repeatedly ...